The Buggati Veryon

THE BUGGATI VEYRON: CAR TO BE BROUGHT BY PEOPLE WITH DOLLARS AND SPEEDING NERVE

About:-
The Bugatti Veyron EB 16.4 is a rear mid-engined supercar. It is the most expensive modern car in the world at $2,600,000. The Super Sport version is the fastest road-legal car in the world, with a top speed of 431.07 km/h (267.85 mph). The original version has a top speed of 408.00 km/h (253.52 mph).
Designed and developed by the German Volkswagen Group and produced by Bugatti Automobiles SAS at their headquarters in Château St. Jean in Molsheim (Alsace, France), the Veyron's chief designer was Hartmut Warkuss, and the exterior was designed by Jozef Kabaň of Volkswagen, with much of the engineering work being conducted under the guidance of former Peterbilt engineer and now Bugatti Engineering chief Wolfgang Schreiber.
The car is named after French racing driver Pierre Veyron, who won the 24 hours of Le Mans in 1939 while racing for the original Bugatti company. It was named Car of the Decade (2000–2009) by the BBC television programme Top Gear.
A number of special variants have been produced, including two targa tops. In December 2010, Bugatti began offering prospective buyers the ability to customize exterior and interiors colours by using the Veyron 16.4 Configurator application on the marque's official website

Top speed:-
German inspection officials recorded an average top speed of the original version of 408.47 km/h (253.81 mph)[5] during test sessions on the Ehra-Lessien test track on 19 April 2005.
This top speed was verified by James May on Top Gear in November 2006, again at Volkswagen Group's private Ehra-Lessien test track. Jeremy Clarkson, driving a Veyron from Italy to London, noted that at top speed the engine consumes 45,000 litres (9,900 imp gal) of air per minute (as much as a human breathes in four days). The Veyron has the highest top speed of any street legal production car. Once back in the Top Gear studio, James was asked by co-presenter Jeremy Clarkson what the Veyron felt like to drive at 407 km/h (253 mph), May replied that it was "totally undramatic", and very stable at speed. It only wobbled slightly as the air brake moved in the vertical position to slow the car down at lower speeds.


On 4 July 2010, Bugatti's official test driver Pierre Henri Raphanel piloted the Super Sport edition and was clocked at an average of 431.072 km/h (267.856 mph) on the same track, taking back the title from the SSC Ultimate Aero TT as the fastest production vehicle of all time. The 431.072 km/h mark was reached by averaging the Super Sport's two test runs, the first topping out at 427.93 km/h (265.90 mph) and the second at 434.20 km/h (269.80 mph). The record run was certified by the German government and the Guinness Book of World Records.
The car's everyday top speed is listed at 350 km/h (220 mph). When the car reaches 220 km/h (140 mph), hydraulics lower the car until it has a ground clearance of about 9 cm (3.5 in). At the same time, the wing and spoiler deploy. In this handling mode the wing provides 3,425 newtons (770 lbf) of downforce, holding the car to the road.
For top speed mode the driver must while at rest toggle a special top speed key to the left of his seat. A checklist then establishes whether the car and its driver are ready to attempt to reach 407 km/h (253 mph). If so, the rear spoiler retracts, the front air diffusers shut, and normal 12.5 cm (4.9 in) ground clearance drops to 6.5 cm (2.6 in).

Tips to avoid yawning and sleeping in a classroom

I know this is the major problem of many students. Guess what? I too have the problem of sleeping in a classroom!!!!

Falling asleep during the day can be a completely relaxing experience and reenergize you for a night out on the town. However slumbering during an important meeting or class can lead to amounts of yelling, detention, or even the loss of your job. Reckless slumbering also often leads to missing out on the enitre day, as comfortable as it may seem.

STEPS:-

1.)Eat:- An empty stomach is a major cause of sleepiness in humans. The food affects the hypothalamus (a gland in your body) and regulates its production of sleep-causing hormones.

2.)Get a good night's sleep:- This is the most important step. A good 8 hours is recommended. Do not procrastinate work: get it done early so you can go to bed by 10 o'clock.

3.)Chew gum or always have something in your mouth:- This helps keep the brain active. If you feel yourself about to yawn, swallow.

4.)Do not let your thoughts stray when you are tired:- The moment your thoughts begin to stray, you will be falling asleep in no time.

TIPS:-

• The Listerine Pocket Packs are a great food item to keep you awake! They burn your mouth. Also, keep a little bottle of mouthwash in your purse, backpack, or work desk. This also keeps the breath fresh.
• Do not slouch in your chair.
• Remember to blink your eyes if you stare at a computer screen. Monitors continuously redisplay their contents and the brain cannot pick up on these changes, but your eye can and it makes the eye extremely tired. (If you look at your monitor with your peripheral vision and can notice that it blinks, your refresh rate is probably set too low.)

83rd Oscar awards

hi friends this post is about 83th Oscar awards nominees and winners
Winners and Nominees for the 83rd Academy Awards

Nominees (Actor in a Leading Role):-
 

•    Javier Bardem in “Biutiful”

•    Jeff Bridges in “True Grit”
•    Jesse Eisenberg in “The Social Network”
•    Colin Firth in “The King's Speech”
•    James Franco in “127 Hours”

Won by Colin Firth in “The King's Speech”
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Nominees (Actor in a Supporting Role):-

•    Christian Bale in “The Fighter”
•    John Hawkes in “Winter's Bone”
•    Jeremy Renner in “The Town”
•    Mark Ruffalo in “The Kids Are All Right”
•    Geoffrey Rush in “The King's Speech”

Won by Christian Bale in “The Fighter”
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Nominees (Actress in a Leading Role):-

•    Annette Bening in “The Kids Are All Right”
•    Nicole Kidman in “Rabbit Hole”
•    Jennifer Lawrence in “Winter's Bone”
•    Natalie Portman in “Black Swan”
•    Michelle Williams in “Blue Valentine”

Won by Natalie Portman in “Black Swan”
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Nominees (Actress in a Supporting Role):-

•    Amy Adams in “The Fighter”
•    Helena Bonham Carter in “The King's Speech”
•    Melissa Leo in “The Fighter”
•    Hailee Steinfeld in “True Grit”
•    Jacki Weaver in “Animal Kingdom”

Won by Melissa Leo in “The Fighter”
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Nominees (Animated Feature Film):-

•    “How to Train Your Dragon” Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois
•    “The Illusionist” Sylvain Chomet
•    “Toy Story 3” Lee Unkrich
•    “Toy Story 3” Lee Unkrich 

Won by “Toy Story 3” Lee Unkrich 
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Nominees (Art Direction):-

•    “Alice in Wonderland”
Production Design: Robert Stromberg; Set Decoration: Karen O'Hara
•    “Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1”
Production Design: Stuart Craig; Set Decoration: Stephenie McMillan
•    “Inception”
Production Design: Guy Hendrix Dyas; Set Decoration: Larry Dias and Doug Mowat
•    “The King's Speech”
Production Design: Eve Stewart; Set Decoration: Judy Farr
•    “True Grit”
Production Design: Jess Gonchor; Set Decoration: Nancy Haigh

Won by “Alice in Wonderland”
Production Design: Robert Stromberg; Set Decoration: Karen O'Hara
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Nominees (Cinematography):-

•    “Black Swan” Matthew Libatique
•    “Inception” Wally Pfister
•    “The King's Speech” Danny Cohen
•    “The Social Network” Jeff Cronenweth
•    “True Grit” Roger Deakins

Won by “Inception” Wally Pfister
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Nominees (Costume Design):-

•    “Alice in Wonderland” Colleen Atwood
•    “I Am Love” Antonella Cannarozzi
•    “The King's Speech” Jenny Beavan
•    “The Tempest” Sandy Powell
•    “True Grit” Mary Zophres
 
Won by “Alice in Wonderland” Colleen Atwood
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Nominees (Directing):-

•    “Black Swan” Darren Aronofsky
•    “The Fighter” David O. Russell
•    “The King's Speech” Tom Hooper
•    “The Social Network” David Fincher
•    “True Grit” Joel Coen and Ethan Coen
 
Won by “The King's Speech” Tom Hooper
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Nominees (Documentary (Feature):-

•    “Exit through the Gift Shop” Banksy and Jaimie D'Cruz
•    “Gasland” Josh Fox and Trish Adlesic
•    “Inside Job” Charles Ferguson and Audrey Marrs
•    “Restrepo” Tim Hetherington and Sebastian Junger
•    “Waste Land” Lucy Walker and Angus Aynsley
 
Won by “Inside Job” Charles Ferguson and Audrey Marrs
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Nominees (Documentary (Short Subject)):-

•    “Killing in the Name” Jed Rothstein
•    “Poster Girl” Sara Nesson and Mitchell W. Block
•    “Strangers No More” Karen Goodman and Kirk Simon
•    “Sun Come Up” Jennifer Redfearn and Tim Metzger
•    “The Warriors of Qiugang” Ruby Yang and Thomas Lennon
Won by “Strangers No More” Karen Goodman and Kirk Simon
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Nominees (Film Editing):-
•    “Black Swan” Andrew Weisblum
•    “The Fighter” Pamela Martin
•    “The King's Speech” Tariq Anwar
•    “127 Hours” Jon Harris
•    “The Social Network” Angus Wall and Kirk Baxter
 
Won by “The Social Network” Angus Wall and Kirk Baxter
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Nominees (Foreign Language Film):-

•    “Biutiful” Mexico
•    “Dogtooth” Greece
•    “In a Better World” Denmark
•    “Incendies” Canada
•    “Outside the Law (Hors-la-loi)” Algeria

Won by “In a Better World” Denmark
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Nominees (Makeup):-

•    “Barney's Version” Adrien Morot
•    “The Way Back” Edouard F. Henriques, Gregory Funk and Yolanda Toussieng
•    “The Wolfman” Rick Baker and Dave Elsey 

Won by “The Wolfman” Rick Baker and Dave Elsey
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Nominees (Music (Original Score)):-

•    “How to Train Your Dragon” John Powell
•    “Inception” Hans Zimmer
•    “The King's Speech” Alexandre Desplat
•    “127 Hours” A.R. Rahman
•    “The Social Network” Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross 

Won by “The Social Network” Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross
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Nominees (Music (Original Song)):-

•    “Coming Home” from “Country Strong” Music and Lyric by Tom Douglas, Troy Verges and Hillary Lindsey
•    “I See the Light” from “Tangled” Music by Alan Menken Lyric by Glenn Slater
•    “If I Rise” from “127 Hours” Music by A.R. Rahman Lyric by Dido and Rollo Armstrong
•    “We Belong Together” from “Toy Story 3" Music and Lyric by Randy Newman
 
Won by “We Belong Together” from “Toy Story 3" Music and Lyric by Randy Newman
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Nominees (Best Picture):-

•    “Black Swan” Mike Medavoy, Brian Oliver and Scott Franklin, Producers
•    “The Fighter” David Hoberman, Todd Lieberman and Mark Wahlberg, Producers
•    “Inception” Emma Thomas and Christopher Nolan, Producers
•    “The Kids Are All Right” Gary Gilbert, Jeffrey Levy-Hinte and Celine Rattray, Producers
•    “The King's Speech” Iain Canning, Emile Sherman and Gareth Unwin, Producers
•    “127 Hours” Christian Colson, Danny Boyle and John Smithson, Producers
•    “The Social Network” Scott Rudin, Dana Brunetti, Michael De Luca and Ceán Chaffin, Producers
•    “Toy Story 3” Darla K. Anderson, Producer
•    “True Grit” Scott Rudin, Ethan Coen and Joel Coen, Producers
•    “Winter's Bone" Anne Rosellini and Alix Madigan-Yorkin, Producers

Won by “The King's Speech” Iain Canning, Emile Sherman and Gareth Unwin, Producers 
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Nominees (Short Film (Animated)):-

•    “Day & Night” Teddy Newton
•    “The Gruffalo” Jakob Schuh and Max Lang
•    “Let's Pollute” Geefwee Boedoe
•    “The Lost Thing” Shaun Tan and Andrew Ruhemann
•    “Madagascar, carnet de voyage (Madagascar, a Journey Diary)” Bastien Dubois

Won by “The Lost Thing” Shaun Tan and Andrew Ruhemann 
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Nominees (Short Film (Live Action)):-

•    “The Confession” Tanel Toom
•    “The Crush” Michael Creagh
•    “God of Love” Luke Matheny
•    “Na Wewe” Ivan Goldschmidt
•    “Wish 143” Ian Barnes and Samantha Waite


Won by “God of Love” Luke Matheny
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Nominees (Sound Editing):-

•    “Inception” Richard King
•    “Toy Story 3” Tom Myers and Michael Silvers
•    “Tron: Legacy” Gwendolyn Yates Whittle and Addison Teague
•    “True Grit” Skip Lievsay and Craig Berkey
•    “Unstoppable” Mark P. Stoeckinger

Won by “Inception” Richard King
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Nominees (Sound Mixing):-

•    “Inception” Lora Hirschberg, Gary A. Rizzo and Ed Novick
•    “The King's Speech” Paul Hamblin, Martin Jensen and John Midgley
•    “Salt” Jeffrey J. Haboush, Greg P. Russell, Scott Millan and William Sarokin
•    “The Social Network” Ren Klyce, David Parker, Michael Semanick and Mark Weingarten
•    “True Grit” Skip Lievsay, Craig Berkey, Greg Orloff and Peter F. Kurland
 
Won by “Inception” Lora Hirschberg, Gary A. Rizzo and Ed Novick------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Nominees (Visual Effects):-

•    “Alice in Wonderland” Ken Ralston, David Schaub, Carey Villegas and Sean Phillips
•    “Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1” Tim Burke, John Richardson, Christian Manz and Nicolas Aithadi
•    “Hereafter” Michael Owens, Bryan Grill, Stephan Trojansky and Joe Farrell
•    “Inception” Paul Franklin, Chris Corbould, Andrew Lockley and Peter Bebb
•    “Iron Man 2” Janek Sirrs, Ben Snow, Ged Wright and Daniel Sudick
 
Won by “Inception” Paul Franklin, Chris Corbould, Andrew Lockley and Peter Bebb 
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Nominees (Writing (Adapted Screenplay)):-

•    “127 Hours” Screenplay by Danny Boyle & Simon Beaufoy
•    “The Social Network” Screenplay by Aaron Sorkin
•    “Toy Story 3” Screenplay by Michael Arndt; Story by John Lasseter, Andrew Stanton and Lee Unkrich
•    “True Grit” Written for the screen by Joel Coen & Ethan Coen
•    “Winter's Bone” Adapted for the screen by Debra Granik & Anne Rosellini 

Won by “The Social Network” Screenplay by Aaron Sorkin
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Nominees (Writing (Original Screenplay)):-

•    “Another Year” Written by Mike Leigh
•    “The Fighter” Screenplay by Scott Silver and Paul Tamasy & Eric Johnson;
Story by Keith Dorrington & Paul Tamasy & Eric Johnson
•    “Inception” Written by Christopher Nolan
•    “The Kids Are All Right” Written by Lisa Cholodenko & Stuart Blumberg
•    “The King's Speech” Screenplay by David Seidler 

Won by “The King's Speech” Screenplay by David Seidler
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thats it friends and the list if nominees and winners of Oscar award are before you in this post


 

intel 8086 micro processor flag register

Intel 8086 microprocessor is a 16 bit microprocessor.It has 16 bit flag register which is divided in to two parts.

1.)status flags

2.)control flags

status flags are 6 in number, they are:-

i.)carry flag

ii.)parity flag

iii.)auxiliary carry flag

iv.)zero flag

v.)sign flag

vi.)overflow flag

control flags are 3 in number, they are:-

i.)direction flag

ii.)interrupt flag

iii.)trap flag

the 8086 flag register comes with an extra flag called overflow flag which is not present on 8085 microprocessor flag register.

the diagram of 8086 flag register is as shown below:-

Carry flag:-

In computer processors the carry flag (usually indicated as the C flag) is a single bit in a system status (flag) register used to indicate when an arithmetic carry or borrow has been generated out of the most significant ALU bit position. The carry flag enables numbers larger than a single ALU width to be added/subtracted by carrying (adding) a binary digit from a partial addition/subtraction to the least significant bit position of a more significant word. It is also used to extend bit shifts and rotates in a similar manner on many processors (sometimes done via a dedicated X flag). For subtractive operations, two (opposite) conventions are employed as most machines sets the carry flag on borrow while some machines (such as the 6502 and the PIC) instead resets the carry flag on borrow (and vice versa).

Parity flag:-

In computer processors the parity flag indicates if the number of set bits is odd or even in the binary representation of the result of the last operation. It is normally a single bit in a processor status register.

For example, assume a machine where a set parity flag indicates even parity. If the result of the last operation were 26 (11010 in binary), the parity flag would be 0 since the number of set bits is odd. Similarly, if the result were 102 (1100110 in binary) then the parity flag would be 1.

Auxiliary carry flag:-

It is a flag stored in the FLAGS register on all x86 compatible CPUs. It is bit 4. It is used to indicate when an arithmetic carry or borrow has been generated out of the 4 least significant bits. It is primarily used in BCD arithmetics.

Zero flag:-

The Zero Flag is a flag stored in the FLAGS register on all x86 compatible CPUs. It is bit 6. When it is set to 1, it means that the result of an instruction was zero. The Zero Flag is changed by all math instructions and the CMP instruction (a compare instruction works by subtracting the two values).

Sign flag:-

In computer processor the negative flag or sign flag is a single bit in a system status (flag) register used to indicate whether the result of last mathematic operation resulted in a value whose most significant bit was set. In a two's complement interpretation of the result, the negative flag is set if the result was negative.

For example, in an 8-bit signed number system, -37 will be represented as 1101 1011 in binary (the most significant bit is 1), while +37 will be represented as 0010 0101 (the most significant bit is 0).

Trap flag:-

The Trap Flag is a flag defined in the x86 processor's flags register.

The trap flag's state is used when using the x86's debugging features. When set, the x86 processor will execute only one instruction at a time and then call interrupt 1 (the debug interrupt) to allow an attached debugger to inspect the program as it executes.

The trap flag can also be set by the x86's debug registers.

Interrupt flag:-

IF (Interrupt Flag) is a system flag bit in the x86 architecture's FLAGS register, which determines whether or not the CPU will handle maskable hardware interrupts.
The bit, which is bit 9 of the FLAGS register, may be set or cleared by programs with sufficient privileges, as usually determined by the Operating System. If the flag is set to 1, maskable hardware interrupts will be handled. If cleared (set to 0), such interrupts will be ignored. IF does not affect the handling of non-maskable interrupts or software interrupts generated by the INT instruction.

Direction flag:-

The Direction Flag is a flag that controls the left-to-right or right-to-left direction of string processing stored in the FLAGS register on all x86 compatible CPUs. It is bit 10.

When it is set to 0 (using the clear-direction-flag instruction CLD), it means that instructions that autoincrement the source index and destination index (like movs) will increase both of them. In case it is set to 1 (using the set-direction-flag instruction STD), the instruction will decrease them.

This flag is used to determine the direction (forward or backward) in which several bytes of data will be copied from one place in the memory, to another. The direction is important mainly when the original data position in memory and the target data position overlap.

Overflow flag:-

The overflow flag is set when the Most Significant Bit (MSB) is set or cleared. For example, take the addition of 127 and 127. The 8 bit signed binary number of 127 is represented as 0111 1111. The MSB (the bit to the far left) is 0. When these two 8 bit numbers are added the result is 254, or 1111 1110. Notice now that the MSB is now 1 and not 0. Therefore, the overflow flag has been set. (1111 1110 would be interpreted as a negative number. The Two's complement is -2.)

thats it friends 

reference:-wikipedia, A.K.Ray text book for advanced microprocessors and peripherals

plz comment your questions in any case, dont hesitate.........

Remembering computer in brief

A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem.

Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from external source, and allow the results of operations to be sent out.

A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment.

The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Function:-
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Control unit:-
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.

The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:

    1.)Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
    2.)Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
    3.)Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
    4.)Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
    5.)Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
    6.)If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
    7.)Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
    8.)Jump back to step (1).

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).

It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program—and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU):-
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc.) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").

Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.

Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
Memory:-
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.
Input/output (I/O):-
I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics[citation needed]. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.
Multitasking:-
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.

One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.

Before the era of cheap computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.

Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly — in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss.
Multiprocessing:-
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.
Networking and the Internet:-
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.

In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.

windows keyboard shortcuts

hi friends now i am going to tell you people how to access windows easily using just keyboard i mean the shortcuts people 

NOTE:For opening explorer window in windows i.e., my computer simply press WIN+E 

 Windows system key combinations
    F1: Help
    CTRL+ESC: Open Start menu
    ALT+TAB: Switch between open programs
    ALT+F4: Quit program
    SHIFT+DELETE: Delete item permanently
    Windows Logo+L: Lock the computer (without using CTRL+ALT+DELETE)  
Windows program key combinations
    CTRL+C: Copy
    CTRL+X: Cut
    CTRL+V: Paste
    CTRL+Z: Undo
    CTRL+B: Bold
    CTRL+U: Underline
    CTRL+I: Italic
Mouse click/keyboard modifier combinations for shell objects
    SHIFT+right click: Displays a shortcut menu containing alternative commands
    SHIFT+double click: Runs the alternate default command (the second item on the menu)
    ALT+double click: Displays properties
    SHIFT+DELETE: Deletes an item immediately without placing it in the Recycle Bin
General keyboard-only commands
    F1: Starts Windows Help
    F10: Activates menu bar options
    SHIFT+F10 Opens a shortcut menu for the selected item (this is the same as right-clicking an object
    CTRL+ESC: Opens the Start menu (use the ARROW keys to select an item)
    CTRL+ESC or ESC: Selects the Start button (press TAB to select the taskbar, or press SHIFT+F10 for a context menu)
    CTRL+SHIFT+ESC: Opens Windows Task Manager
    ALT+DOWN ARROW: Opens a drop-down list box
    ALT+TAB: Switch to another running program (hold down the ALT key and then press the TAB key to view the task-switching window)
    SHIFT: Press and hold down the SHIFT key while you insert a CD-ROM to bypass the automatic-run feature
    ALT+SPACE: Displays the main window's System menu (from the System menu, you can restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close the window)
    ALT+- (ALT+hyphen): Displays the Multiple Document Interface (MDI) child window's System menu (from the MDI child window's System menu, you can restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or close the child window)
    CTRL+TAB: Switch to the next child window of a Multiple Document Interface (MDI) program
    ALT+underlined letter in menu: Opens the menu
    ALT+F4: Closes the current window
    CTRL+F4: Closes the current Multiple Document Interface (MDI) window
    ALT+F6: Switch between multiple windows in the same program (for example, when the Notepad Find dialog box is displayed, ALT+F6 switches between the Find dialog box and the main Notepad window)
Shell objects and general folder/Windows Explorer shortcuts
For a selected object:
    F2: Rename object
    F3: Find all files
    CTRL+X: Cut
    CTRL+C: Copy
    CTRL+V: Paste
    SHIFT+DELETE: Delete selection immediately, without moving the item to the Recycle Bin
    ALT+ENTER: Open the properties for the selected object
General folder/shortcut control
    F4: Selects the Go To A Different Folder box and moves down the entries in the box (if the toolbar is active in Windows Explorer)
    F5: Refreshes the current window.
    F6: Moves among panes in Windows Explorer
    CTRL+G: Opens the Go To Folder tool (in Windows 95 Windows Explorer only)
    CTRL+Z: Undo the last command
    CTRL+A: Select all the items in the current window
    BACKSPACE: Switch to the parent folder
    SHIFT+click+Close button: For folders, close the current folder plus all parent folders
Windows Explorer tree control
    Numeric Keypad *: Expands everything under the current selection
    Numeric Keypad +: Expands the current selection
    Numeric Keypad -: Collapses the current selection.
    RIGHT ARROW: Expands the current selection if it is not expanded, otherwise goes to the first child
    LEFT ARROW: Collapses the current selection if it is expanded, otherwise goes to the parent
Properties control
    CTRL+TAB/CTRL+SHIFT+TAB: Move through the property tabs

ALSO IN WINDOWS 7 PRESS WIN+R TO OPEN RUN
PRESS WIN+D TO MINIMIZE ALL THE WINDOWS

PRESS WIN+L TO LOCK THE WINDOWS JUST LIKE THAT

USE THE INFORMATION AND ENJOY FRIENDS

the bhargav's ultimate blog: wanna prepare for the placements

the bhargav's ultimate blog: wanna prepare for the placements: "hi guys if you wanna prepare for the placement i ve got a cool website for exactly for the placements and that is http://placementpaper..."

wanna prepare for the placements

hi guys if you wanna prepare for the placement i ve got a cool website for exactly for the placements and that is 

http://placementpapers.net/helpingroot/

thatz it guys go on seeing into company's placement papers and their newest examination patterns and so on lolz 

enjoy guys!!!!!!!!!

recommendations for best antivirus

I think the best antivirus is bitdefender followed by kaspersky in second place 

however kaspersky is recommended for industrial purposes and is so safe and secure antivirus i ve ever

used 

avast 6.0 free antivirus serves the best antivirus for home/domestic purpose computers 

however the ratings of antivirus programs are presented on the site 

http://anti-virus-software-review.toptenreviews.com/ so go on enjoy

if needed the keys of antiviruses try using torrentz